Unit VI - Logical Reasoning
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Anumana: (Inference)
Anumana is a sanskrit word which means 'inference' or 'knowledge after follows'. 'Anu' means 'after' and 'mana' means 'knowledge'.
We may have knowledge about two things which is invariably related and on that basis, while seeing the one thing, we assume the presence of another thing. Thus, anumana is nothing but gaining knowledge based on logical conclusion. The knowledge so gained is called 'Inferential knowledge'.
According to Nyaya philosophy, Anumana (Inference) is the second source of valid knowledge. For example, when observing smoke from a hill, we remember that 'There is no smoke without fire' and hence we come to the conclusion that there must be fire on the hill.
In Aristotelian syllogism, there are three terms involved in this inference:
- Hetu/Linga - The knowledge of a reason which is associated with the subject. (Smoke)
- Paksa - The subject with reference to which something or the character is inferred. (Hill)
- Sadhya - The character which is intended to be inferred. (Fire)
Along with the above three terms, there must be an invariable relationship between hetu and sadhya (smoke and fire) in the past, which is called 'Vyapti'. This process of inference is called 'Linga-paramarsa'. Hence Anumana is also defined as 'Linga-paramarsa'.
There are two types of vyapti:
- Samavyapti - It is an equipollent concomitance relation between hetu and sadhya or vyapti in terms of equal extension. (Equipollent - equal in effect or power and concomitance - the fact of occurring together with another). Samavyapti means there are two sides relation. For example, if you see a smoke, you can infer fire and by seeing a fire, you can infer smoke, i.e., we can infer either of the term from another.
- Asamavyapti - It is a non-equipollent concomitance relation between hetu and sadhya or vyapti in terms of unequal extension. It means there is only one side relation. For example, If I say 'men are mortal', this means if there are men, they can be mortal but I can't say that all mortal beings are men, i.e., we can infer one term from the other but not vice versa. We can have an inference from only one side and not from other side.
Vyapti is a sanskrit word which is a noun formed from the root 'vyap' which means 'to pervade'. Vyapti is an important factor for attaining the inferential knowledge.
The following five conditions must be fulfilled in order to make a correct or valid inference:
- Paksa-sattva - The hetu/linga (smoke) must be present in the paksa (hill).
- Sapaksa-sattva - The hetu/linga (smoke) must be present in all other known objects similar to the paksa with sadhya (fire) in it.
- Vipaksa-vyavrtti - The hetu/linga (smoke) must not be present in any other objects which don't have sadhya (fire) in it.
- Abandhita- visayatva - The inferred assertion (sadhya) should not be such that it is invalidated by the testimony of the sastra or direct perception.
- Asat-pratipaksatva - The hetu/linga (smoke) should not be such that by an inference in the opposite way could also be possible.
In Nyaya syllogism, there are five terms in this inference or anumana:
- A proposition or hypothesis (pratijina) - The hill has fire.
- A reason (hetu) - Because there is a smoke rising from the hill.
- An example (udaharana) - fire in a forest, fire in a stove, i.e., There is no smoke without fire.
- A application or reaffirmation (upanaya) - The hill has smoke which is invariably related with fire.
- A deduction or conclusion (nigamana) - Hence, there must be fire on the hill.
The Aristotelian syllogism is deductive and formal. The Nyaya syllogism is deductive-inductive and formal-material.
Classification or types of Anumana (Inference)
- Svartha Anumana - It means resolving or doubt in one's own mind or convincing one's own self.
- Parartha Anumana - If a person tries to explain the truth of the conclusion to others, it is called 'Parartha Anumana'. In other words, it is an inference done to convince others. This inference is done after convincing one's own self based on five syllogism or propositions of Nyaya philosophy.
In svartha anumana, either the first three propositions or last three propositions is necessary.
In parartha anumana, all the five propositions are necessary.
This classification of inference is accepted by Advaitivi.
There is another classification which divides inference into three types: Purvavat, Sesavat, and Samanyato-drsta. This classification is given by Gautama and is accepted by the early writers of Nyaya philosophy.
- Purvavat inference - It is the inference of the effect from the cause. For example, Inference of future rain (effect) from dark clouds in the sky (cause). This inference relates to the future from the past.
- Sesavat inference - It is the inference of the cause from the effect. For example, inference of mother's cooking (cause) from seeing the dinner in the table (effect). This inference relates to the past from the present.
- Samanyato-drsta inference - It is the inference based on the relation of co-existence but not on casual relation. For example, from the fragrance of rose flower, one can infer the presence of the rose flower.
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Based on vyapti, there are three types of inferences which is given by Aniruddha.
Kevalanvayi inference - This inference is arrived through the method of agreement in presence.
For example,
'All the knowable things are nameable'.
Therefore the pot is nameable because it is knowable.
Kevala-vyatireki inference - This inference is arrived through the method of agreement in absence.
For example,
'What is not different from other elements or things has no smell, i.e., things that is not different from other things has no smell';
Hence, the earth is different from other things because it has smell.
Anvaya-vyatireki inference - It is an inference by observing the vyapti (invariable relation) through the method of agreement both in presence and absence.
Anvaya-vyatireki inference - It is an inference by observing the vyapti (invariable relation) through the method of agreement both in presence and absence.
For example,
'Fiery things have smoke;
This hill has smoke;
Hence, this hill is fiery.
'No non-fiery things have smoke;
This hill has smoke;
Hence, this hill is fiery.
According to sankhyas, anumana or inference is divided into two types, vita and avita.
- Vita inference - It is based on positive or affirmative concomitance. It is subdivided into puravat inference and samanyato-drsta inference.
- Avita inference - It is based on negative concomitance and is similar to sesavat inference.
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